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Selasa, 30 November 2010

AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) atau (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)

Gejala dan komplikasi


Gejala-gejala utama AIDS.
Berbagai gejala AIDS umumnya tidak akan terjadi pada orang-orang yang memiliki sistem kekebalan tubuh yang baik. Kebanyakan kondisi tersebut akibat infeksi oleh bakteri, virus, fungi dan parasit, yang biasanya dikendalikan oleh unsur-unsur sistem kekebalan tubuh yang dirusak HIV. Infeksi oportunistik umum didapati pada penderita AIDS. HIV memengaruhi hampir semua organ tubuh. Penderita AIDS juga berisiko lebih besar menderita kanker seperti sarkoma Kaposi, kanker leher rahim, dan kanker sistem kekebalan yang disebut limfoma.
Biasanya penderita AIDS memiliki gejala infeksi sistemik; seperti demam, berkeringat (terutama pada malam hari), pembengkakan kelenjar, kedinginan, merasa lemah, serta penurunan berat badan. Infeksi oportunistik tertentu yang diderita pasien AIDS, juga tergantung pada tingkat kekerapan terjadinya infeksi tersebut di wilayah geografis tempat hidup pasien.

Penyakit paru-paru utama


Foto sinar-X pneumonia pada paru-paru, disebabkan oleh Pneumocystis jirovecii.
Pneumonia pneumocystis (PCP) jarang dijumpai pada orang sehat yang memiliki kekebalan tubuh yang baik, tetapi umumnya dijumpai pada orang yang terinfeksi HIV.
Penyebab penyakit ini adalah fungi Pneumocystis jirovecii. Sebelum adanya diagnosis, perawatan, dan tindakan pencegahan rutin yang efektif di negara-negara Barat, penyakit ini umumnya segera menyebabkan kematian. Di negara-negara berkembang, penyakit ini masih merupakan indikasi pertama AIDS pada orang-orang yang belum dites, walaupun umumnya indikasi tersebut tidak muncul kecuali jika jumlah CD4 kurang dari 200 per µL
Tuberkulosis (TBC) merupakan infeksi unik di antara infeksi-infeksi lainnya yang terkait HIV, karena dapat ditularkan kepada orang yang sehat (imunokompeten) melalui rute pernapasan (respirasi). Ia dapat dengan mudah ditangani bila telah diidentifikasi, dapat muncul pada stadium awal HIV, serta dapat dicegah melalui terapi pengobatan. Namun demikian, resistensi TBC terhadap berbagai obat merupakan masalah potensial pada penyakit ini.
Meskipun munculnya penyakit ini di negara-negara Barat telah berkurang karena digunakannya terapi dengan pengamatan langsung dan metode terbaru lainnya, namun tidaklah demikian yang terjadi di negara-negara berkembang tempat HIV paling banyak ditemukan. Pada stadium awal infeksi HIV (jumlah CD4 >300 sel per µL), TBC muncul sebagai penyakit paru-paru. Pada stadium lanjut infeksi HIV, ia sering muncul sebagai penyakit sistemik yang menyerang bagian tubuh lainnya (tuberkulosis ekstrapulmoner). Gejala-gejalanya biasanya bersifat tidak spesifik (konstitusional) dan tidak terbatasi pada satu tempat.TBC yang menyertai infeksi HIV sering menyerang sumsum tulang, tulang, saluran kemih dan saluran pencernaan, hati, kelenjar getah bening (nodus limfa regional), dan sistem syaraf pusat. Dengan demikian, gejala yang muncul mungkin lebih berkaitan dengan tempat munculnya penyakit ekstrapulmoner.

Penyakit saluran pencernaan utama

Esofagitis adalah peradangan pada kerongkongan (esofagus), yaitu jalur makanan dari mulut ke lambung. Pada individu yang terinfeksi HIV, penyakit ini terjadi karena infeksi jamur (jamur kandidiasis) atau virus (herpes simpleks-1 atau virus sitomegalo). Ia pun dapat disebabkan oleh mikobakteria, meskipun kasusnya langka
Diare kronis yang tidak dapat dijelaskan pada infeksi HIV dapat terjadi karena berbagai penyebab; antara lain infeksi bakteri dan parasit yang umum (seperti Salmonella, Shigella, Listeria, Kampilobakter, dan Escherichia coli), serta infeksi oportunistik yang tidak umum dan virus (seperti kriptosporidiosis, mikrosporidiosis, Mycobacterium avium complex, dan virus sitomegalo (CMV) yang merupakan penyebab kolitis).
Pada beberapa kasus, diare terjadi sebagai efek samping dari obat-obatan yang digunakan untuk menangani HIV, atau efek samping dari infeksi utama (primer) dari HIV itu sendiri. Selain itu, diare dapat juga merupakan efek samping dari antibiotik yang digunakan untuk menangani bakteri diare (misalnya pada Clostridium difficile). Pada stadium akhir infeksi HIV, diare diperkirakan merupakan petunjuk terjadinya perubahan cara saluran pencernaan menyerap nutrisi, serta mungkin merupakan komponen penting dalam sistem pembuangan yang berhubungan dengan HIV

Penyakit syaraf dan kejiwaan utama

Infeksi HIV dapat menimbulkan beragam kelainan tingkah laku karena gangguan pada syaraf (neuropsychiatric sequelae), yang disebabkan oleh infeksi organisma atas sistem syaraf yang telah menjadi rentan, atau sebagai akibat langsung dari penyakit itu sendiri.
Toksoplasmosis adalah penyakit yang disebabkan oleh parasit bersel-satu, yang disebut Toxoplasma gondii. Parasit ini biasanya menginfeksi otak dan menyebabkan radang otak akut (toksoplasma ensefalitis), namun ia juga dapat menginfeksi dan menyebabkan penyakit pada mata dan paru-paru. Meningitis kriptokokal adalah infeksi meninges (membran yang menutupi otak dan sumsum tulang belakang) oleh jamur Cryptococcus neoformans. Hal ini dapat menyebabkan demam, sakit kepala, lelah, mual, dan muntah. Pasien juga mungkin mengalami sawan dan kebingungan, yang jika tidak ditangani dapat mematikan.
Leukoensefalopati multifokal progresif adalah penyakit demielinasi, yaitu penyakit yang menghancurkan selubung syaraf (mielin) yang menutupi serabut sel syaraf (akson), sehingga merusak penghantaran impuls syaraf. Ia disebabkan oleh virus JC, yang 70% populasinya terdapat di tubuh manusia dalam kondisi laten, dan menyebabkan penyakit hanya ketika sistem kekebalan sangat lemah, sebagaimana yang terjadi pada pasien AIDS. Penyakit ini berkembang cepat (progresif) dan menyebar (multilokal), sehingga biasanya menyebabkan kematian dalam waktu sebulan setelah diagnosis.
Kompleks demensia AIDS adalah penyakit penurunan kemampuan mental (demensia) yang terjadi karena menurunnya metabolisme sel otak (ensefalopati metabolik) yang disebabkan oleh infeksi HIV; dan didorong pula oleh terjadinya pengaktifan imun oleh makrofag dan mikroglia pada otak yang mengalami infeksi HIV, sehingga mengeluarkan neurotoksin. Kerusakan syaraf yang spesifik, tampak dalam bentuk ketidaknormalan kognitif, perilaku, dan motorik, yang muncul bertahun-tahun setelah infeksi HIV terjadi. Hal ini berhubungan dengan keadaan rendahnya jumlah sel T CD4+ dan tingginya muatan virus pada plasma darah. Angka kemunculannya (prevalensi) di negara-negara Barat adalah sekitar 10-20%, namun di India hanya terjadi pada 1-2% pengidap infeksi HIV. Perbedaan ini mungkin terjadi karena adanya perbedaan subtipe HIV di India.

Kanker dan tumor ganas (malignan)


Sarkoma Kaposi
Pasien dengan infeksi HIV pada dasarnya memiliki risiko yang lebih tinggi terhadap terjadinya beberapa kanker. Hal ini karena infeksi oleh virus DNA penyebab mutasi genetik; yaitu terutama virus Epstein-Barr (EBV), virus herpes Sarkoma Kaposi (KSHV), dan virus papiloma manusia (HPV).
Sarkoma Kaposi adalah tumor yang paling umum menyerang pasien yang terinfeksi HIV. Kemunculan tumor ini pada sejumlah pemuda homoseksual tahun 1981 adalah salah satu pertanda pertama wabah AIDS. Penyakit ini disebabkan oleh virus dari subfamili gammaherpesvirinae, yaitu virus herpes manusia-8 yang juga disebut virus herpes Sarkoma Kaposi (KSHV). Penyakit ini sering muncul di kulit dalam bentuk bintik keungu-unguan, tetapi dapat menyerang organ lain, terutama mulut, saluran pencernaan, dan paru-paru.
Kanker getah bening tingkat tinggi (limfoma sel B) adalah kanker yang menyerang sel darah putih dan terkumpul dalam kelenjar getah bening, misalnya seperti limfoma Burkitt (Burkitt's lymphoma) atau sejenisnya (Burkitt's-like lymphoma), diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), dan limfoma sistem syaraf pusat primer, lebih sering muncul pada pasien yang terinfeksi HIV. Kanker ini seringkali merupakan perkiraan kondisi (prognosis) yang buruk. Pada beberapa kasus, limfoma adalah tanda utama AIDS. Limfoma ini sebagian besar disebabkan oleh virus Epstein-Barr atau virus herpes Sarkoma Kaposi.
Kanker leher rahim pada wanita yang terkena HIV dianggap tanda utama AIDS. Kanker ini disebabkan oleh virus papiloma manusia.
Pasien yang terinfeksi HIV juga dapat terkena tumor lainnya, seperti limfoma Hodgkin, kanker usus besar bawah (rectum), dan kanker anus. Namun demikian, banyak tumor-tumor yang umum seperti kanker payudara dan kanker usus besar (colon), yang tidak meningkat kejadiannya pada pasien terinfeksi HIV. Di tempat-tempat dilakukannya terapi antiretrovirus yang sangat aktif (HAART) dalam menangani AIDS, kemunculan berbagai kanker yang berhubungan dengan AIDS menurun, namun pada saat yang sama kanker kemudian menjadi penyebab kematian yang paling umum pada pasien yang terinfeksi HIV.

Infeksi oportunistik lainnya

Pasien AIDS biasanya menderita infeksi oportunistik dengan gejala tidak spesifik, terutama demam ringan dan kehilangan berat badan. Infeksi oportunistik ini termasuk infeksi Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare dan virus sitomegalo. Virus sitomegalo dapat menyebabkan gangguan radang pada usus besar (kolitis) seperti yang dijelaskan di atas, dan gangguan radang pada retina mata (retinitis sitomegalovirus), yang dapat menyebabkan kebutaan. Infeksi yang disebabkan oleh jamur Penicillium marneffei, atau disebut Penisiliosis, kini adalah infeksi oportunistik ketiga yang paling umum (setelah tuberkulosis dan kriptokokosis) pada orang yang positif HIV di daerah endemik Asia Tenggara.

sumber : http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIDS

Senin, 29 November 2010

situs winnie the pooh






Welcome to Winniethepoohbear.net where you will find all sorts of Winnie the Pooh fun! You have arrived at the number one site for Winnie the Pooh and friends stuff!
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*All of the Winnie the Pooh characters are fictional characters based on the original works of A.A. Milne and Ernest H. Shepard. The characters and their names are registered trademarks of the Trustees of the Pooh Properties, Dutton Children's Books, or the Disney Corporation. The images on these pages are copyrighted illustrations of the Disney Corporation and/or Dutton Children's Books. The Disney Corporation and Dutton Children's Books in no way endorse this web site, nor are they affiliated with this page in any way. These pages were created by the webmaster/web mistress strictly for the enjoyment of Winnie the Pooh fans from all over the world, both children and adults! For true Pooh enjoyment go to Disney.com...

 
 

sumber :http://www.winniethepoohbear.net/ 

winnie the pooh

History

Origin

Original Winnie the Pooh stuffed toys. Clockwise from bottom left: Tigger, Kanga, Edward Bear ("Winnie the Pooh"), Eeyore, and Piglet. Roo was lost long ago; the other characters were made up for the stories.
Milne named the character Winnie-the-Pooh after a teddy bear owned by his son, Christopher Robin Milne, who was the basis for the character Christopher Robin. His toys also lent their names to most of the other characters, except for Owl and Rabbit, as well as the Gopher character, who was added in the Disney version. Christopher Robin's toy bear is now on display at the Main Branch of the New York Public Library in New York.
Harry Colebourne and Winnie 1914
Christopher Milne had named his toy bear after Winnie, a Canadian black bear which he often saw at London Zoo, and "Pooh", a swan they had met while on holiday. The bear cub was purchased from a hunter for $20 by Canadian Lieutenant Harry Colebourn in White River, Ontario, Canada, while en route to England during the First World War. He named the bear "Winnie" after his hometown in Winnipeg, Manitoba. "Winnie" was surreptitiously brought to England with her owner, and gained unofficial recognition as The Fort Garry Horse regimental mascot. Colebourne left Winnie at the London Zoo while he and his unit were in France; after the war she was officially donated to the zoo, as she had become a much loved attraction there. Pooh the swan appears as a character in its own right in When We Were Very Young.
In the first chapter of Winnie-the-Pooh, Milne offers this explanation of why Winnie-the-Pooh is often called simply "Pooh":
"But his arms were so stiff ... they stayed up straight in the air for more than a week, and whenever a fly came and settled on his nose he had to blow it off. And I think — but I am not sure — that that is why he is always called Pooh."
 

Ashdown Forest: the setting for the stories

The Winnie-the-Pooh stories are set in Ashdown Forest, Sussex, England. The forest is a large area of tranquil open heathland on the highest sandy ridges of the High Weald Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty situated 30 miles (50 km) south of London. In 1925 Milne, a Londoner, bought a country home a mile to the north of the forest at Cotchford Farm, near Hartfield. According to Christopher Milne, while his father continued to live in London "...the four of us—he, his wife, his son and his son's nanny—would pile into a large blue, chauffeur-driven Fiat and travel down every Saturday morning and back again every Monday afternoon. And we would spend a whole glorious month there in the spring and two months in the summer." From the front lawn the family had a view across a meadow to a line of alders that fringed the River Medway, beyond which the ground rose through more trees until finally "above them, in the faraway distance, crowning the view, was a bare hilltop. In the center of this hilltop was a clump of pines." Most of his father's visits to the forest at this time were, he noted, family expeditions on foot "to make yet another attempt to count the pine trees on Gill's Lap or to search for the marsh gentian". Christopher added that, inspired by Ashdown Forest, his father had made it "the setting for two of his books, finishing the second little over three years after his arrival". Many locations in the stories can be linked to real places in and around the forest. As Christopher Milne wrote in his autobiography: “Pooh’s forest and Ashdown Forest are identical”. For example, the fictional "Hundred Acre Wood" was in reality Five Hundred Acre Wood; Galleon's Leap was inspired by the prominent hilltop of Gill's Lap, while a clump of trees just north of Gill's Lap became Christopher Robin's The Enchanted Place because no-one had ever been able to count whether there were sixty-three or sixty-four trees in the circle. The landscapes depicted in E.H. Shepard’s illustrations for the Winnie-the-Pooh books are directly inspired by the distinctive landscape of Ashdown Forest, with its high, open heathlands of heather, gorse, bracken and silver birch punctuated by hilltop clumps of pine trees. In many cases Shepard's illustrations can be matched to actual views, allowing for a degree of artistic license. Shepard's sketches of pine trees and other forest scenes are on display at the V&A Museum in London. The game of Poohsticks was originally played by Christopher Milne on a footbridge across a tributary of the River Medway in Posingford Wood, close to Cotchford Farm. It is traditional to play the game there using sticks gathered in nearby woodland. When the footbridge required replacement in recent times the engineer designed a new structure based closely on the drawings by E. H. Shepard of the bridge in the original books, as the bridge did not originally appear as the artist drew it. An information board at the bridge describes how to play the game.

First publication

Winnie-the-Pooh's début in the 24 Dec. 1925 London Evening News
There are three claimants, depending on the precise question posed. Christopher Robin's teddy bear, Edward, made his character début in a poem called 'Teddy Bear' in Milne's book of children's verse When We Were Very Young (6th Nov 1924) although his TRUE 1st appearance was within the 13th Feb 1924 Edition of Punch magazine which contained the same poem along with other stories by Milne & Shepard. Winnie-the-Pooh first appeared by name on 24 December 1925, in a Christmas story commissioned and published by the London newspaper The Evening News. It was illustrated by J. H. Dowd.[6] The first collection of Pooh stories appeared in the book Winnie-the-Pooh. The Evening News Christmas story reappeared as the first chapter of the book, and at the very beginning it explained that Pooh was in fact Christopher Robin's Edward Bear, who had simply been renamed by the boy. The book was published in October 1926 by the publisher of Milne's earlier children's work, Methuen, in England, and E. P. Dutton in the United States.[7]

Sequel

An authorised sequel Return to the Hundred Acre Wood was published on 5 October 2009.[citation needed] The author, David Benedictus, has developed, but not changed, Milne's characterisations. The illustrations, by Mark Burgess, are in the style of Shepard.[8]

Stephen Slesinger

On 6 January 1930, Stephen Slesinger purchased U.S. and Canadian merchandising, television, recording and other trade rights to the "Winnie-the-Pooh" works from Milne for a $1000 advance and 66% of Slesinger's income, creating the modern licensing industry. By November 1931, Pooh was a $50 million-a-year business.[9] Slesinger marketed Pooh and his friends for more than 30 years, creating the first Pooh doll, record, board game, puzzle, US radio broadcast (NBC), animation, and motion picture film.[10] In 1961, Disney acquired rights from Slesinger to produce articles of merchandise based on characters from its feature animation.

Red Shirt Pooh

The first time Pooh and his friends appeared in color was 1932, when he was drawn by Slesinger in his now-familiar red shirt and featured on an RCA Victor picture record. Parker Brothers also introduced A. A. Milne's Winnie-the-Pooh Game in 1933, again with Pooh in his red shirt. In the 1940s, Agnes Brush created the first plush dolls with Pooh in his red shirt. It is important to note that E.H Shepard had drawn Pooh with a shirt as early as the first Winnie-The-Pooh book, which was subsequently coloured red in later coloured editions.

Disney

Disney's adaptation of Stephen Slesinger, Inc.'s Winnie-the-Pooh.
After Slesinger's death in 1953, his wife, Shirley Slesinger Lasswell, continued developing the character herself. In 1961, she licensed rights to Walt Disney Productions in exchange for royalties in the first of two agreements between Stephen Slesinger, Inc. and Disney.[11] The same year, A. A. Milne's widow, Daphne Milne, also licensed certain rights, including motion picture rights, to Disney. Since 1966, Disney has released numerous animated productions starring Winnie the Pooh and related characters. These have included theatrical featurettes, television series, and direct-to-video films, as well as the theatrical feature-length films The Tigger Movie, Piglet's Big Movie, and Pooh's Heffalump Movie. In December 2005, Disney announced a Disney Channel animated television series, My Friends Tigger & Pooh, focusing on adventures had by 6-year-old Darby and the Pooh characters, with two occasional appearances from Christopher Robin.[12] The show began airing on the Disney Channel's Playhouse Disney on 12 May 2007 until 4 July 2010. The Disney version of Winnie the Pooh was featured in Cartoon All-Stars to the Rescue, the Kingdom Hearts videogames and the TV series House of Mouse Pooh also appears at Walt Disney Parks and Resorts as a meet-able and child friendly character.

Merchandising revenue dispute

Winnie the Pooh with Stingo from Fifi & the Flowertots in Zagreb, Croatia
Pooh videos, soft toys, and other merchandise generate substantial annual revenues for Disney. The size of Pooh stuffed toys ranges from Beanie and miniature to human-sized. In addition to the stylised Disney Pooh, Disney markets Classic Pooh merchandise which more closely resembles E.H. Shepard’s illustrations. It is estimated that Winnie the Pooh features and merchandise generate as much revenue as Mickey Mouse, Minnie Mouse, Donald Duck, Goofy, and Pluto combined.[13] In 1991, Stephen Slesinger, Inc. filed a lawsuit against Disney which alleged that Disney had breached their 1983 agreement by again failing to accurately report revenue from Winnie the Pooh sales. Under this agreement, Disney was to retain approximately 98% of gross worldwide revenues while the remaining 2% was to be paid to Slesinger. In addition, the suit alleged that Disney had failed to pay required royalties on all commercial exploitation of the product name.[14] Though the Disney corporation was sanctioned by a judge for destroying forty boxes of evidential documents,[15] the suit was later terminated by another judge when it was discovered that Slesinger's investigator had rummaged through Disney's garbage in order to retrieve the discarded evidence.[16] Slesinger appealed the termination, and on 26 September 2007, a three-judge panel upheld the lawsuit dismissal.[17] After the Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act of 1998, Clare Milne, Christopher Milne's daughter, attempted to terminate any future U.S. copyrights for Stephen Slesinger, Inc.[18] After a series of legal hearings, Judge Florence-Marie Cooper of the US District Court in California found in favour of Stephen Slesinger, Inc., as did the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. On 26 June 2006, the U.S. Supreme Court refused to hear the case, sustaining the ruling and ensuring the defeat of the suit.[19] On 19 February 2007 Disney lost a court case in Los Angeles which ruled their "misguided claims" to dispute the licensing agreements with Slesinger, Inc. were unjustified,[20] but a federal ruling of 28 September 2009, again from Judge Florence-Marie Cooper, determined that the Slesinger family had granted all trademark and copyright rights to Disney, although Disney must pay royalties for all future use of the characters. Both parties have expressed satisfaction with the outcome.[21][22] sumber : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winnie-the-Pooh

about winnie the pooh

Winnie-the-Pooh

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Winnie-the-Pooh
Pooh Shepard 1926.png
Winnie-the-Pooh (versi 1926)
Penulis A. A. Milne
Ilustrator E. H. Shepard
Negara Britania Raya
Bahasa Inggris
Penerbit Methuen & Co. Ltd. (London)
Tanggal terbit 14 Oktober 1926
Winnie-the-Pooh, umumnya disingkat menjadi Pooh Bear dan pernah disebut Edward Bear, adalah karakter beruang fiksi yang diciptakan oleh A. A. Milne. Buku pertama mengenai karakter ini adalah Winnie-the-Pooh (1926), lalu diikuti dengan The House at Pooh Corner (1928).
Kisah Pooh telah diterjemahkan kedalam berbagai bahasa. Winnie-the-Pooh juga diadaptasi oleh Disney.Pooh tinggal di sebuah pohon yang bertuliskan "Mr. Sanderz" .

sumber :http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winnie-the-Pooh